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There has been substantial progress in recent years in getting mothers in the U.S. to breastfeed their infants, and the latest available national data have met Healthy People 2010 goals, but not those for 2020.
Importance
Breastfeeding provides a critical support for infants’ immunologic, nutritional, physical, and cognitive development.[1] Research shows that breastfeeding is associated with a number of benefits to children, including reduced rates of infectious diseases, sudden infant death syndrome, type 1 and type 2 diabetes, lymphoma, leukemia, Hodgkin’s disease, overweight and obesity. [2],[3] Children who are breastfed during early infancy are less likely to suffer from diarrhea, ear infections, lower respiratory infections, urinary tract infections, and bacterial meningitis. Breast milk may also help protect against allergies and digestive disorders.[4]
Studies of breastfeeding also show it to be associated with decreased rates of adverse health and developmental outcomes later in life. For example, children who were breastfed for 9 months were 30 percent less likely to be overweight later in childhood than were infants who were never breastfed.[5] Mothers who breastfed their children for at least three months were significantly less concerned about their child’s language and motor skill development at age six, compared with mothers of children who were never breastfed.[6] The benefits of breastfeeding for cognitive development have also been demonstrated into adulthood. Infants who were breastfed for three months or more had significantly higher scores on assessments of their language and intelligence as adults.[7] Studies demonstrate an association between breastfeeding and improved vision, higher IQ, and better cognitive functioning.[8],[9],[10]
In addition to the benefits to infants, breastfeeding is also associated with positive outcomes for mothers. Studies demonstrate a number of maternal health benefits, including earlier return to pre-pregnancy weight, reduced rates of breast and ovarian cancers, and decreased risk of hip fractures and osteoporosis later in the mother’s life.[11] Breastfeeding mothers also report higher rates of mother-infant attachment and bonding, feelings of maternal empowerment, and confidence.[12]
Trends
For infants born in 2013, 81 percent of mothers reported ever breastfeeding, 52 percent reported still breastfeeding at six months, and 31 percent reported breastfeeding at 12 months. These figures reflect growing proportions of infants who are breastfed. Between 2000 and 2013, the proportion of infants who continued to be breastfed at twelve months increased by 97 percent (from 16 to 31 percent); the proportion who were breastfed at six months increased by 52 percent (from 34 to 52 percent); and the proportion who were ever breastfed increased by fourteen percent (from 71 to 81 percent). (Figure 1)
Differences by Race/Hispanic Origin[13]
Infants born in 2013 to black mothers were less likely than infants born to white, Hispanic, Asian, or American Indian mothers to be ever breastfed (66 percent for black mothers, compared with 84 percent for white, 83 percent for Hispanic, 84 percent for Asian, and 68 percent for American Indian mothers), and also less likely than all to be breastfed at six and twelve months. Asian mothers are more likely than mothers of any group other to breastfeed, by each of the three measures, particularly at six and twelve months. (Figure 2)
Differences by Poverty Status
Infants born in 2013 to mothers living below or near the poverty line were less likely to be breastfed, and less likely to continue to be breastfed, than those in higher-income households. For example, 73 percent of mothers living below the poverty line breastfed compared to 78 percent of mothers living at 100 to 199 percent of the poverty line, 87 percent of mothers living at 200 to 399 percent of the poverty line, and 92 percent of mothers at 600 percent of the poverty line or greater. For breastfeeding at twelve months, mothers living at more than 400% of the poverty line breastfed at twice the rates of mothers living at less than the poverty line. (Figure 3)
Differences by Receipt of WIC Benefits
The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) actively promotes breastfeeding among postpartum women. However, infants born in 2013 to mothers receiving WIC were less likely to be breastfed at six months, compared with mothers eligible for but not receiving WIC, and mothers not eligible and not receiving WIC (31 percent, compared with 61 and 69 percent, respectively). (Appendix 2) This may reflect the lower incomes of WIC recipients,[14] but may also be related to the considerable subsidies, particularly prior to 2010, that WIC provided for mothers buying formula.[15] This disparity exists for all measured periods. (Appendix 1 and Appendix 3)
Differences by Maternal Education
Mothers who have more education are more likely to breastfeed their infants than are mothers with less education. For infants born in 2013, 92 percent of mothers with a college education ever breastfed their infant, compared with 84 percent of those with some college education, 71 percent for those with a high school degree and 69 percent for those with less than a high school degree. (Appendix 1) Patterns are similar when looking at mothers who breastfed at six months. Seventy percent of mothers with a college education breastfed at six months, compared with 49 percent with some college education, and 39 and 38 percent, respectively, for those with a high school degree and those with less than a high school degree. (Appendix 2) At twelve months, women college graduates were more likely than their peers to breastfeed, at 44 percent, compared with 27, 21, and 22 percent, respectively, among mothers with some college, a high school diploma only, and no high school diploma. (Appendix 3)
Differences by Marital Status
Married mothers are significantly more likely to breastfeed their infants than are non-married mothers. Eighty-eight percent of infants born in 2013 to married women were ever breastfed, compared with 70 percent born to unmarried mothers. (Appendix 1) The difference was greater for breastfeeding at six and twelve months: married mothers were 29 percentage points more likely than unmarried mothers at six months, and twice as likely as unmarried mothers to still be breastfeeding at twelve months. (Appendix 2 and Appendix 3)
Differences by Maternal Age
Young mothers are substantially less likely than older mothers to breastfeed their infants. For infants born in 2013, 22 percent of mothers ages 20 to 29 breastfed their infant at twelve months, compared with 37 percent of mothers 30 and older. At six months, mothers between 20 and 29 were also less likely than their older peers to be breastfeeding (41 percent, compared with 60 percent among mothers age 30 and older). Mothers ever breastfeeding showed a similar pattern, with mothers ages 20 to 29 breastfeeding at 77 percent, compared to 85 percent for mothers age 30 and older. (Figure 4)
State and Local Estimates
State breastfeeding estimates are available from the National Immunization Survey (NIS) for babies born in 2011.
International Estimates
International estimates by country and region can be obtained from UNICEF.
National Goals
The federal Healthy People 2020 initiative has several goals to increase proportion of infants who are breastfed by 2020, including to increase the proportion ever breastfed to 81.9 percent, the proportion breastfed at six months to 60.6 percent, and the proportion breastfed at twelve months to 34.1 percent,. There are also supporting goals to increase the proportion of employers that have lactation support programs, to reduce the proportion of breastfeeding newborns who receive formula supplementation, and to increase the proportion of live births that occur in facilities that provide recommended care for lactating mothers and their infants.
More information is available here. (Goals MICH-21 through MICH-24)
What Works to Make Progress on This Indicator
See: Shealy, K.R., Li, R., Benton-Davis, S., & Grummer-Strawn, L. M. (2005). The CDC Guide to Breastfeeding Interventions.
Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Also, see Child Trends’ LINKS database (“Lifecourse Interventions to Nurture Kids Successfully”), for reviews of many
rigorously evaluated programs, including the following which has been shown to be effective:
In addition, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has published “The Surgeon General’s Call to Action to Support Breastfeeding,” which presents a national plan to promote breastfeeding, based on education, research, awareness, and support. The document is available online.
Related Indicators
Definition
Breastfeeding was defined as the child being fed breast milk directly from the mother or milk that was pumped from the mother’s breast, with or without the addition of complementary liquids or solids. Yearly data reflects the year of the child’s birth, not the survey year. Before 2009, the survey was conducted on land-line phones only, but more recent data were collected from both landlines and cell phones.
Data Source
Data for 2000-2013: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Breastfeeding among U.S. children born 2001–2013, CDC National Immunization Survey. Atlanta, GA: Author. Available online at: www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/data/NIS_data/index.htm.
Raw Data Source
National Immunization Survey
Appendix 1 – Among Infants Born in 2000-2013,1 Percentage of Mothers Ever Breastfeeding2, by Socio-Demographic Factors
| 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | |
| Total | 71 | 72 | 71 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 74 | 76 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 79 | 80 | 81 |
| Sex of Infant | ||||||||||||||
| Male | 70 | 72 | 71 | 72 | 73 | 75 | 73 | 75 | – | 76 | 77 | 80 | 80 | 81 |
| Female | 71 | 72 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 73 | 75 | 75 | – | 76 | 77 | 79 | 80 | 81 |
| Birth order | ||||||||||||||
| First-born | 68 | 71 | 71 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 74 | 75 | – | 75 | 76 | 79 | 79 | 79 |
| Not first-born | 75 | 73 | 72 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 74 | 76 | – | 77 | 78 | 80 | 82 | 84 |
| Race/Hispanic origin | ||||||||||||||
| Non-Hispanic white | 72 | 73 | 72 | 74 | 74 | 75 | 74 | 76 | – | 78 | 79 | 81 | 83 | 84 |
| Non-Hispanic black | 48 | 52 | 52 | 54 | 56 | 57 | 56 | 58 | – | 61 | 63 | 62 | 66 | 66 |
| Hispanic | 79 | 80 | 79 | 80 | 80 | 81 | 81 | 81 | – | 80 | 79 | 84 | 82 | 83 |
| Asian or Pacific Islander | 86 | 77 | 79 | 79 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 83 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Non-Hispanic Asian | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 86 | 80 | 91 | 83 | 84 |
| Non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaskan Native3 | 80 | 69 | 67 | 69 | 75 | 65 | 71 | 74 | – | 69 | 75 | 77 | 72 | 68 |
| Receiving WIC | ||||||||||||||
| Yes | 62 | 65 | 65 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 67 | 68 | – | 69 | 69 | 72 | 73 | 74 |
| No, but eligible | 83 | 77 | 72 | 76 | 78 | 75 | 74 | 78 | – | 79 | 81 | 83 | 80 | 82 |
| No, and ineligible | 80 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 82 | 83 | 82 | 85 | – | 87 | 88 | 90 | 91 | 91 |
| Maternal Age | ||||||||||||||
| Less than 20 | 68 | 59 | 43 | 52 | 54 | 52 | 58 | 60 | – | 60 | 56 | 67 | 59 | – |
| Ages 20 – 29 | 66 | 68 | 67 | 68 | 69 | 70 | 70 | 70 | – | 71 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 77 |
| 30 and older | 75 | 76 | 77 | 77 | 77 | 78 | 78 | 79 | – | 81 | 81 | 84 | 84 | 85 |
| Maternal Education | ||||||||||||||
| Less than High School | 65 | 66 | 64 | 64 | 67 | 66 | 68 | 67 | – | 67 | 66 | 69 | 69 | 69 |
| High School | 62 | 64 | 63 | 65 | 65 | 68 | 66 | 66 | – | 67 | 68 | 69 | 71 | 71 |
| Some College | 72 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 75 | 74 | 75 | 77 | – | 77 | 78 | 81 | 81 | 84 |
| College Graduate | 83 | 85 | 84 | 84 | 86 | 86 | 86 | 88 | – | 89 | 90 | 91 | 91 | 92 |
| Maternal Marital Status | ||||||||||||||
| Married | 76 | 78 | 78 | 78 | 79 | 79 | 80 | 82 | – | 84 | 85 | 87 | 87 | 88 |
| Unmarried4 | 59 | 59 | 57 | 60 | 59 | 62 | 60 | 61 | – | 63 | 64 | 67 | 68 | 70 |
| Income-to-Poverty Ratio5 | ||||||||||||||
| Less than 100% | 61 | 64 | 63 | 63 | 65 | 67 | 66 | 67 | – | 66 | 68 | 71 | 71 | 73 |
| 100% – 199% | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 76 | 76 | 78 | 79 | 78 |
| 200% – 399% | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 82 | 83 | 86 | 86 | 87 | |
| 400% – 599% | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 88 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 90 |
| 600% or greater | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 86 | 89 | 91 | 91 | 92 |
| 1 Before 2009, the survey was conducted on land-line phones only, but more recent data were collected from both landline and cell phone households.
2 Breastfeeding with or without the addition of complementary liquids or solids. 3 Prior to 2009, American Indians or Alaskan Natives included Hispanics. 4 Includes widowed, separated, divorced, deceased, and never married. 5 This equals the ratio of the self-reported family income to the federal poverty threshold value, taking into account the number of people in the household. Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Breastfeeding among U.S. children born 2001–2013, CDC National Immunization Survey. Atlanta, GA: Author. Available online at http://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/data/NIS_data/index.htm |
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Appendix 2 – Among Infants Born in 2000-2013,1 Percentage of Mothers Breastfeeding2 at 6 Months, by Socio-Demographic Factors
| 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | |
| Total | 34 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 44 | 44 | 47 | 48 | 49 | 51 | 52 |
| Sex of Infant | ||||||||||||||
| Male | 33 | 36 | 36 | 39 | 41 | 43 | 43 | 43 | – | 46 | 48 | 50 | 50 | 52 |
| Female | 36 | 38 | 39 | 39 | 43 | 43 | 44 | 44 | – | 47 | 48 | 49 | 53 | 52 |
| Birth order | ||||||||||||||
| First-born | 34 | 38 | 38 | 38 | 44 | 45 | 46 | 44 | – | 48 | 50 | 50 | 53 | 52 |
| Not first-born | 35 | 35 | 38 | 40 | 40 | 41 | 41 | 42 | – | 45 | 44 | 48 | 49 | 52 |
| Race/Hispanic origin | ||||||||||||||
| Non-Hispanic white | 38 | 38 | 39 | 41 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 45 | – | 49 | 49 | 52 | 56 | 58 |
| Non-Hispanic black | 18 | 22 | 22 | 25 | 28 | 30 | 29 | 28 | – | 33 | 36 | 35 | 35 | 39 |
| Hispanic | 36 | 41 | 42 | 42 | 45 | 46 | 48 | 46 | – | 47 | 49 | 48 | 51 | 46 |
| Asian or Pacific Islander | 38 | 42 | 42 | 47 | 52 | 56 | 56 | 56 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Non-Hispanic Asian | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 65 | 60 | 71 | 66 | 64 |
| Non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaskan Native3 | 37 | 31 | 30 | 34 | 41 | 35 | 40 | 42 | – | 39 | 45 | 37 | 29 | 41 |
| Receiving WIC | ||||||||||||||
| Yes | 24 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 34 | 34 | 34 | 34 | – | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 31 |
| No, but eligible | 47 | 51 | 45 | 48 | 52 | 53 | 50 | 48 | – | 55 | 59 | 56 | 58 | 61 |
| No, and ineligible | 45 | 46 | 49 | 50 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 54 | – | 62 | 63 | 66 | 68 | 69 |
| Maternal Age | ||||||||||||||
| Less than 20 | 16 | 14 | 13 | 18 | 18 | 19 | 22 | 22 | – | 20 | 17 | 19 | 17 | – |
| Ages 20 – 29 | 27 | 31 | 31 | 32 | 35 | 35 | 34 | 33 | – | 37 | 38 | 39 | 41 | 41 |
| 30 and older | 42 | 44 | 45 | 46 | 49 | 50 | 50 | 51 | – | 55 | 57 | 59 | 60 | 60 |
| Maternal Education | ||||||||||||||
| Less than High School | 26 | 32 | 31 | 33 | 37 | 36 | 37 | 37 | – | 38 | 38 | 34 | 40 | 38 |
| High School | 26 | 28 | 29 | 29 | 32 | 34 | 34 | 31 | – | 35 | 37 | 38 | 38 | 39 |
| Some College | 35 | 36 | 39 | 40 | 42 | 39 | 42 | 41 | – | 44 | 41 | 46 | 46 | 49 |
| College Graduate | 48 | 53 | 52 | 53 | 57 | 59 | 59 | 60 | – | 65 | 66 | 68 | 70 | 70 |
| Maternal Marital Status | ||||||||||||||
| Married | 39 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 49 | 50 | 51 | 52 | – | 57 | 59 | 60 | 62 | 63 |
| Unmarried4 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 27 | 28 | 28 | 26 | – | 29 | 29 | 32 | 33 | 34 |
| Income-to-Poverty Ratio5 | ||||||||||||||
| Less than 100% | 25 | 31 | 30 | 30 | 35 | 36 | 35 | 35 | – | 36 | 38 | 38 | 38 | 38 |
| 100% – 199% | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 45 | 43 | 46 | 49 | 47 | |
| 200% – 399% | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 53 | 55 | 58 | 60 | 60 |
| 400% – 599% | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 61 | 59 | 62 | 66 | 66 |
| 600% or greater | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 62 | 65 | 68 | 70 | 70 |
| 1 Before 2009, the survey was conducted on land-line phones only, but more recent data were collected from both landline and cell phone households.
2 Breastfeeding with or without the addition of complementary liquids or solids. 3 Prior to 2009, American Indians or Alaskan Natives included Hispanics. 4 Includes widowed, separated, divorced, deceased, and never married. 5 This equals the ratio of the self-reported family income to the federal poverty threshold value, taking into account the number of people in the household. Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Breastfeeding among U.S. children born 2001–2013, CDC National Immunization Survey. Atlanta, GA: Author. Available online at http://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/data/NIS_data/index.htm
|
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Appendix 3 – Among Infants Born in 2000-2013,1 Percentage of Mothers Breastfeeding2 at 12 Months, by Socio-Demographic Factors
| 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | |
| Total | 16 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 25 | 25 | 27 | 29 | 31 |
| Sex of Infant | ||||||||||||||
| Male | 14 | 17 | 18 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 22 | 22 | – | 24 | 26 | 26 | 28 | 30 |
| Female | 18 | 19 | 20 | 20 | 22 | 21 | 24 | 23 | – | 25 | 25 | 28 | 31 | 32 |
| Birth order | ||||||||||||||
| First-born | 17 | 19 | 19 | 19 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 24 | – | 26 | 28 | 28 | 33 | 36 |
| Not first-born | 14 | 17 | 19 | 20 | 19 | 18 | 20 | 21 | – | 22 | 21 | 25 | 17 | 19 |
| Race/Hispanic origin | ||||||||||||||
| Non-Hispanic white | 17 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 21 | 21 | 23 | 23 | – | 26 | 27 | 28 | 33 | 36 |
| Non-Hispanic black | 7 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 13 | 15 | 13 | 13 | – | 16 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 19 |
| Hispanic | 17 | 21 | 22 | 22 | 25 | 24 | 26 | 25 | – | 26 | 27 | 25 | 28 | 26 |
| Asian or Pacific Islander | 18 | 23 | 25 | 25 | 29 | 32 | 35 | 33 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Non-Hispanic Asian | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 35 | 32 | 47 | 42 | 39 |
| Non-Hispanic American Indian or Alaskan Native3 | 19 | 15 | 16 | 18 | 23 | 15 | 20 | 21 | – | 23 | 27 | 25 | 18 | 22 |
| Receiving WIC | ||||||||||||||
| Yes | 11 | 15 | 15 | 15 | 17 | 17 | 17 | 18 | – | 19 | 19 | 20 | 19 | 21 |
| No, but eligible | 24 | 28 | 27 | 27 | 31 | 32 | 32 | 31 | – | 34 | 38 | 33 | 41 | 42 |
| No, and ineligible | 20 | 22 | 25 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 28 | 28 | – | 32 | 34 | 36 | 42 | 43 |
| Maternal Age | ||||||||||||||
| Less than 20 | 8 | 7 | 5 | 6 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 11 | – | 11 | 7 | 13 | 4 | – |
| Ages 20 – 29 | 11 | 14 | 15 | 15 | 17 | 15 | 17 | 16 | – | 18 | 18 | 19 | 21 | 22 |
| 30 and older | 20 | 22 | 24 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 27 | – | 30 | 32 | 34 | 36 | 37 |
| Maternal Education | ||||||||||||||
| Less than High School | 13 | 17 | 16 | 19 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 22 | – | 21 | 22 | 20 | 21 | 22 |
| High School | 12 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 16 | 16 | 17 | 15 | – | 19 | 21 | 20 | 20 | 21 |
| Some College | 14 | 17 | 19 | 19 | 20 | 19 | 22 | 21 | – | 21 | 18 | 24 | 24 | 27 |
| College Graduate | 23 | 26 | 27 | 26 | 29 | 30 | 31 | 31 | – | 35 | 36 | 38 | 43 | 44 |
| Maternal Marital Status | ||||||||||||||
| Married | 18 | 21 | 23 | 23 | 25 | 25 | 27 | 28 | – | 31 | 33 | 33 | 38 | 39 |
| Unmarried4 | 10 | 11 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 13 | 14 | 12 | – | 14 | 13 | 16 | 15 | 17 |
| Income-to-Poverty Ratio5 | ||||||||||||||
| Less than 100% | 12 | 16 | 16 | 17 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 19 | – | 19 | 21 | 20 | 20 | 21 |
| 100% – 199% | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 25 | 23 | 25 | 28 | 28 |
| 200% – 399% | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 28 | 29 | 32 | 36 | 37 |
| 400% – 599% | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 31 | 31 | 35 | 38 | 43 |
| 600% or greater | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 31 | 35 | 34 | 39 | 42 |
| 1 Before 2009, the survey was conducted on land-line phones only, but more recent data were collected from both landline and cell phone households.
2 Breastfeeding with or without the addition of complementary liquids or solids. 3 Prior to 2009, American Indians or Alaskan Natives included Hispanics. 4 Includes widowed, separated, divorced, deceased, and never married. 5 This equals the ratio of the self-reported family income to the federal poverty threshold value, taking into account the number of people in the household. Source: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Breastfeeding among U.S. children born 2001–2013, CDC National Immunization Survey. Atlanta, GA: Author. Available online at http://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/data/NIS_data/index.htm |
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Endnotes
[1]Gartner, L.M., & Eidelman, A. (2005). Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics, 115(2), 496-506.
[2]Ibid.
[3]Woo, J. G., Dolan, L. M., Morrow, A. L., Geraghty, S. R., & Goodman, E. (2008). Breastfeeding helps explain racial
and socioeconomic status disparities in adolescent adiposity. Pediatrics, 121(3), e458-e465.
[4]Gartner & Eidelman. (2005). op. cit.
[5]Division of Nutrition and Physical Activity. (2007). Research to practice series no.4: Does breastfeeding reduce the risk of
pediatric overweight? Atlanta, GA: Center for Disease Control and Prevention.
[6]Dee, D. L., Li, R., Lee, L. C., Grummer-Strawn, L. (2007). Associations between Breastfeeding practices and young
children’s language and motor skill development. Pediatrics, 119 (supplement 1), S92-S98.
[7]Mortensen, E. L, Michaelsen, K. F., Sanders, S.A., & Reinisch, J. M. (2002). The association between duration of breastfeeding and adult intelligence. Journal of the American Medical Association, 297(18), 2365-2371.
[8]Golding, J., Rogers, I. S., & Emmett, P. M. (1997). Association between breast feeding, child development and behavior. Early Human Development, 49 (Supplement), S175-S184.
[9]Kramer, M. S, Aboud, F., Mironova, E., Vanilovich, I., Platt, R. W., Matush, L., Igumnov, S., et al. (2008). Breastfeeding and child cognitive development: New evidence from a large randomized trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65(5),578-584.
[10]Belfort, M. B., Rifas-Shiman, S. L., Kleinman, K. P., Guthrie, L. B., Bellinger, D. C., Taveras, E. M., Gillman, M. W., & Oken, E. (2013). Infant feeding and childhood cognition at ages 3 and 7 years. JAMA Pediatrics, published online July 29, 2013.
[11]Gartner, L. M., & Eidelman, A. (2005). Op. cit.
[12]Callen, J., & Pinelli, J. (2005). A review of the literature examining the benefits and challenges, incidence and duration, and barriers to breastfeeding in preterm infants. Advances in Neonatal Care, 5(2),72-88.
[13]Hispanics may be any race. Totals for whites, blacks, Asians, and American Indians in this report exclude Hispanics unless otherwise specified. American Indians include Alaska Natives.
[14]Bitler, M., Gundersen, C., Marquis, G. S. (2005). Are WIC nonrecipients at less nutritional risk than recipients? An application of the food security measure. Review of Agricultural Economics 27(3), 433-438
[15]Reat, A, Crixell, S., Von Bank, J., Thornton, H., & Friedman, B. J. (2014). Average infant formula and breastmilk intake among WIC infants reflects food package changes. The FASEB Journal, 28(1 supplement). 632.9.
Suggested Citation:
Child Trends Databank. (2016). Breastfeeding. Available at: https://www.childtrends.org/?indicators=breastfeeding
Last updated: November 2016