Data from a subset of the National Survey of Adolescent Health (Add Health)--- Wave 1 participants who reported living with a father or father figure (n=13,308)--- indicate that the father's income level and employment status are positively associated with his level of closeness to the child (Harris, Heard, & King, 2000).

Data from a longitudinal study of 1,158 10- to 14-year-olds indicate that poor quality of parent or parent-figure employment predict lower reports of maternal warmth in the mother-child relationship (Menaghan, Kowaleski-Jones, & Mott, 1997). Participants were children of women in the nationally representative NLSY79; however, this sample does not represent 10- to 14-year-olds in general, as they were all born to mothers of lower-than-average childbearing age (over a quarter were under age 18, all were under age 23).