Parent education levels are also associated with contraceptive use at first intercourse. Nationally representative samples of female teenagers show that higher levels of parental education are associated with a higher probability of using any form of contraception at first sex (Manning et al., 2000; Mauldon & Luker, 1996). National-level data also indicate that female adolescents across multiple time periods with mothers who were more educated had a reduced likelihood of having a teenage birth (Manlove et al., 2000; Afxentiou & Hawley, 1997). Urban male teens with more educated parents also show a reduced likelihood of becoming a teenage father than teens who had less educated parents (Thornberry et al., 1997), and women between the ages of 18 and 22 living in Arizona whose mothers had at least a high school degree are less likely to have been pregnant (Roosa, Tein, Reinholtz, & Angelini, 1997).