Several recent studies found that teens living in neighborhoods with concentrated poverty and racial segregation have higher rates of non-marital and teenage childbearing than teens who live in communities with higher SES levels (Brewster, 1994a; Brewster, Billy, & Grady, 1993; Hogan & Kitagawa, 1985). Papillo (2000) found that a higher median household income in the community was associated with a reduced risk of a birth throughout adolescence. Additionally, Sucoff and Upchurch (1998) found that black female adolescents living in lower-class (low SES) and working-class black neighborhoods were more likely to have a birth than black female adolescents living in working-class racially mixed neighborhoods, after controlling for family background characteristics.