FAMILY FACTORS
Family Economic Risk
  • Job training and education for parents [improves children's cognitive outcomes]

  • Providing child care subsidies alone [leads to more use of formal child care arrangements]
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  • Raising family incomes above the poverty level [confounded with providing child care subsidies]

  • Job training and education for parents [mixed results for child behavioral and emotional outcomes, but impacts for cognitive outcomes]
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    Family Structure
  • Two involved parents, regardless of marital status [improves children's cognitive and social outcomes]

  • Low conflict two-parent families [improves children's socioemotional outcomes]

  • Nurse Home Visitation (not paraprofessionals) beginning in pregnancy and continuing through child's second birthday [leads to wider birth spacing and fewer births over time; see additional outcomes below]
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  • Encouraging involvement between children and nonresident parents [need to take account of the quality of the interactions]
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  • Reducing unintended pregnancy

  • Reducing teen pregnancy

  • Financial contributions from nonresident parent [associated with children's cognitive and social outcomes]
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    The Home Environment
  • Nurse Home Visitation: home visits by a nurse (not a paraprofessional) beginning in pregnancy and continuing through child's second birthday to discuss parental health habits, parenting behaviors, and home safety [leads to reduction in child abuse, increase in child health, better academic and social outcomes for both parent and child]

  • Good parenting practices (e.g., sensitive response to child, noncoercive discipline) [leads to better socioemotional child outcomes]
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  • Other home visitation models using either professionals or paraprofessionals (Parents as Teachers; Family, Infant, Preschool Program; Healthy Families America; Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youngsters) [improved parentchild interactions, reduced maternal depression, increased child cognitive abilities, but typically small and inconsistent gains in child outcomes, or gains for only subgroups of families]
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  • Focusing on the parent child relationship